Educational psychology Essay Example for Free

nurtureal psychology Essay fosterage in its general sense is a form of study in which the experience, skills, and habits of a group of state argon transferred from one generation to the next through pedagogy, training, or research. culture frequently takes buttocks under the charge of others, and may also be autodidactic. 1 Any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered groomingal. breeding is commonly divided into stages much(prenominal)(prenominal) as preschool, primary school, alternate school and then college, university or apprenticeship. A right to gentility has been recognized by nigh governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the United Nations 1966 foreign Covenant on Economic, sociable and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of everyone to an genteelness. 2 Although nurture is obligatory in most places up to a certain age, attending at school lots isnt, and a minority of pargonnts choose h ome- nurture, e-learning or similar for their children. Contents hide 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Formal knowledge 3. 1 Preschool 3. 2 Primary 3.3 modester-ranking 3. 4 Tertiary ( mellower) 3. 5 Vocational 3. 6 Special 4 another(prenominal) fosterageal forms 4. 1 Alternative 4. 2 Indigenous 4. 3 inner learning 4. 4 Self- guideed learning 4. 5 blossom out education and e-learning 5 learning goals 5. 1 Internationalization 5. 2 Education and technology in generateing countries 5. 3 Private v existence funding in developing countries 6 educational theory 6. 1 Purpose of schools 6. 2 Educational psychology 6. 3 Learning modalities 6. 4 philosophical system 6. 5 Curriculum 6. 6 Instruction 7 Economics8 find also 9 References 10 External links Etymologyedit Etymologically, the word education is derived from the Latin educatio (A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing) from educo (I educate, I train) which is related to the homonym educo (I lead forth, I take out I raise up, I erect) from e- (from, out of) and duco (I lead, I conduct). 3 Education can take place in formal or informal educational settings. Historyedit main(prenominal) condition History of education Nalanda, ancient center for higher learningPlatos academy, mosaic from Pompeii Education began in the earliest prehistory, as adults trained the young of their society in the k straight offledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education actual. Schools existed in Egypt at the date of the marrow Kingdom. 4A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, undercoated in 1088 Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclids Elements published in 1607 Plato founded the academy in Athens, the first insti tution of higher learning in Europe. 5 The city of Alexandria in Egypt, founded in 330 BCE, became the re spic-and-spanal to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. in that respect mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus constructed the cracking Library of Alexandria and translated the Hebrew discussion into Greek.European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476. 6 In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was Chinas most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours wish Korea, japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his i requires for good governance, but his analects were written d profess by followers and sacrifice continued to influence education in east Asia into the modern era.citation needed After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole prese rver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. about of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of umpteen of Europes modern universities. 6 During the noble Middle Ages, Chartres cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School.The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged drop by the waysidedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a authoritative method of scientific tasteation7 and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. 8 The University of Bologne is considered the oldest continually operating university.Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics f lourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. well-nigh 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which lay offed exercises of literature to spread more(prenominal) quickly.The European Age of Empires proverb European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the contagious disease of knowledge, science, and culture mingled with China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclids Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. Th e Enlightenment motto the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe.In most countries today, education is requisite for all children up to a certain age. overdue to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has reckon that in the next 30 long time more masses will bid formal education than in all of human history thus far. 9 Formal educationedit Systems of schooling involve institutionalized coning and learning in relation to a programme, which itself is established according to a prede circumstanceined purpose of the schools in the system.School systems be sometimes also based on religions, giving them different curricula. Preschooledit Young children in a kindergarten in Japan briny article Early childhood education Preschools allow for education up to the age of between 4 and 8 when children enter primary education. Also kn take as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the USA, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education. Preschool education is chief(prenominal) because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and education climate.citation needed While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they puzzle their formal education they will be piece of ass the children who already possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is to bid a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the childs physical, intellectual, and object lesson nature with balanced emphasis on each of them. 10 This period of education is very important in the formative years of the child.Teachers with limited skills and training ar needed at this time to nurture the children to develop their potentials. citation needed Primaryedit School children line, in Kerala, India Main article Primary education Prima ry (or elementary) education consists of the first 57 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, some 89% of primary-age children argon enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.11 Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries baffle committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in m whatsoever countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it by and large occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have breach middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as prima ry schools.Primary schools in these countries are practically subdivided into infant schools and junior school. In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. lowlyedit Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School, New Zealand Main article Secondary educationIn most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, send out-secondary, or higher education (e. g. university , vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a break in of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools.The exact meaning of any of these call varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from expanse to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 113 is used.The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train presently in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in fact ories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In smart set to meet this new demarcation demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focaliseed on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work.This provedto be beneficial for both employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees to be conform to more efficient, which lowered be for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment. In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or beneficent educational nucleotides, which themselves have an even longer history. Community colleges offer nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area.Tertiary (higher)edit Students in a laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnic al University See also Higher education and Adult education Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to complicate undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education.Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is thus very important to national economies, both as a sig nificant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.University education accepts teaching, research, and social serve activities, and it accepts both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent like Yale University public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education or independent but state-funded like the University of Virginia.A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet. A liberal arts institution can be delineate as a college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in seam to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. 12 Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,13 the term is more commonly associated with universities in the United States. citation needed Vocationaledit.Carpentry is normally learned through apprenticeship. Main article Vocational education Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, computer architecture and the arts. Specialedit Main article Special education In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education.Children with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more lately it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning. 14 Other educational formsedit AlternativeeditMain article Alternative education While considered secondary today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the nineteenth century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling and unschooling.Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools. To a greater or lesser de gree, ideas from these experiments and challenges to the system may in time be adopted by the mainstream, as to a large degree has happened with kindergarten, an experimental approach to early childhood education developed by Friedrich Frobel in 19th century Germany.Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss human-centered Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich. Indigenousedit Na Schoolyard. Teaching indigenous knowledge, models, methods in Yanyuan County, Sichuan in China Main article Indigenous educationIndigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to reclaim and re order their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students. 15 Informal learningedit.Main article informal learning Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners this includes language acquisition, ethnical norms and manners. Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of places, such as out of school time, in youth programs at community centers and media labs.Informal learning usually takes place outside educational establishments, does not follow a specified curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain occasions, from changing practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects, but rather unconsciously incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management and fitness for life. It is experienced nowadays in its natural function of everyday life and is often spontaneous.The concept of education through pleasure was applied to childhood development in the 19th century. 16 In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities. 17 L. P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, expound education through recreation A master in the art of living draws no knowing distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his l eisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation.He hardly knows which is which. He exactly pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well. 18 Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of lifes activities. 19 The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students. 19 Self-directed learningedit.Main article Autodidacticism Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of learning on your own or by yourself, or as a self-teacher. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in ones life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas.Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U. S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician). gift education and e-learningedit Main articles Open education and E-learning In 2012, e-learning had grown at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.clarification needed20 Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its force and results compared to traditional methods. 21 Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free . Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or to the highest degree free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX.Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press. 22 Many people despite prosperous studies on effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons. 23 The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom.Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal academic value to traditional degrees. 24 Many open universities are working to have the major power to offer students standardized scrutiny and traditional degrees and credentials. citation needed There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are tone to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on-campus education, which is not often directly offered from open education.citation needed Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege. Development goalsedit World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report) Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. when? (Chart does not include population statistics. ) Since 1909, the ratio of children in the developing world going to school has emergenced. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the twenty-first century, the ma jority of all children in most regions of the world attended school.There are 73 billion children,clarification needed mostly female children in light families, who did not start elementary school. There are more than 200 million children, mostly females from poor families, who did not go to secondary school. 25 popular Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. 26 Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem.Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to receiving more funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an unfledged aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue. 26 Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Educati on in Africa. 27 Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved.There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education. citation needed A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole. 28 Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principlesnational leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention strategies must be context relevant and context specificclarification needed they should embrace an integrated set of comple mentary interventions, though capital punishment may need to proceed in stepsclarification needed partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels a certain percentage of students should be outside for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade). Internationalizationedit.Nearly every country now has Universal Primary Education. Similarities in systems or even in ideas that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Program29 facilitates exchanges across European universities.The Soros Foundation30 provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. Education and technology in developing countriesedit.The OLPC laptop computer being introduced to children in Haiti Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the deprived may access educational materials, for example, the One Laptop per Child project. The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media science laboratory and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $ snow laptop for retorting educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.In Africa, the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) has launched an e-school program to provide all 600,000 primary an d high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. 31 An International Development Agency project called nabuur. com,32 started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development. India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students.In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, acommunications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the countrys population at a greatly reduced cost. 33 Private v public funding in developing countriesedit Research into low cost private schools found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around low-cost private schools to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarised and finding growing coverage in international policy. 34The polarisation was due t o disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reaching disadvantaged groups, provide timberland education, supporting or undermining equality, and are financially sustainable. The written report examined the main challenges that development organisations which support LCPSs have encountered.34 Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia and is attributed to excess demand. These surveys also found concern for Equity, widely found in the literature, as the growth in low-cost private schooling may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families, and between girls and boys. The report says findings are that LCPSs see evidence girls are underrepresented and that they are reaching some low-income families, often in small numbers compared with higher-income families. Quality of provision and educational outcomes You cannot gene ralise about the quality of private schools.While most achieve better results than government counterparts, even after their social downplay is taken into account, some studies find the opposite. Quality in terms of levels of teacher absence, teaching activity and disciple to teacher ratios in some countries are better in LCPSs than in government schools. Choice and affordability for the poor parents can choose private schools because of perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language instruction preference. Nevertheless, the concept of choice does not apply in all contexts, or to all groups in society, partly because of limited affordability (which excludes most of the poorest) and other forms of exclusion, related to caste or social status.Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability Evidence is that private schools operate at low cost by keeping teacher salaries low, but their financial situation may be unassured where they are reliant on fees from low-income households. The report said there were some cases of successful voucher and support programmes evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread. 34 Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPSs, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor.A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low income families. 35 Main article Educational theory Purpose of schoolsedit Individual purposes for pursuing education can vary. The understanding of the goals and substance of educational acculturation processes may also differ according to the sociological paradigm used. In the early years of schooling, the focus is generally around developing basic interpersonal communication and literacy skills in order to further ability to learn more complex skills and subjects.After acquiring these basic abilities, education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a livelihood for themselves. 36 Satisfying personal curiosities (education for the saki of itself) and desire for personal development, to better oneself without career based reasons for doing so are also common reasons wherefore people pursue education and use schools. 37 Education is often understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994).Learners can also be move by their interest in the subject area or specific skill they are exhausting to learn. Learner-responsibility education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic to be studied. 38Education is often perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique take and potentialities39 with the purpose of developing every individual to their full potential. Educational psychologyedit Main article Educational psychology Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.Although the terms educational psychology and school psychology are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.